Introduction to Comparative Politics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introduction to Comparative Politics - Essay Example However, the ignored internal dynamics within the Chinese and Russian economies do have a direct impact on the regime stability in these countries.3 A lopsided distribution of the national wealth, corruption and a marked regional in-equilibrium in terms of economic development, do have the potential of disturbing political stability in China.4 At the same time, the ongoing economic meltdown and the 2008 oil price crisis had a dwindling impact on the popular support enjoyed by the Russian regime. Both these countries have embarked on an era of economic growth. However, the inbuilt flaws inherent in the politico-economic setup of these nations and external influences and pressures, are making the regimes in these countries rethink their growth strategies. There is no denying the fact that the above discussed internal and external socio-economic issues are quiet pivotal to the regime stability in China and Russia. The seven year (1991-1998) economic transition from the Soviet style centralized economy to a free market economy in Russia was tragically marked by chaos and instability. In the years of Boris Yeltsin, the Russian GDP dwindled by almost 30 percent.5 The inflation rates soared to new heights, resting at 20 percent by the late 90s.6 This deprived the Russian masses of their savings and purchasing power. The quality of life of the Russian people deteriorated on all parameters.7 This dire situation was further aggravated by a massive capital flight from Russia.8 This economic fiasco had a direct bearing on the popular support enjoyed by President Boris Yeltsin. People soon started to get critical of one’s ill conceived and poorly executed economic policies. However, things started to improve in 1999, with the change of regime in Russia. An ambitious growth in GDP translating into increased real wages and better standards of living and lower levels of poverty, garnered ample supp ort for President Putin, till the dwindling of oil prices

Bendix Policies Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Bendix Policies - Case Study Example Their reactions showed that they greatly feared the loss of their position and reputation. This is due to the fact that William Agee’s method of leadership, which is decentralizing powers and his own spontaneous style of meritocracy, is both in contrast and in conflict with board members and other managers’ style of corporate handling. It is ethically wrong for them to treat her rise to the ranks with much sour judgment. At the same time, it would have been to Mary Cunningham’s best interest to have shown some measure of respect toward the board members. Even though the board members were wrong from the start, she should have at least shown some degree of politeness. Also, prudence would have worked well for her advantage. If she was more discreet with regards to her closeness with William Agee, there would have been less scrutiny and suspicion coming from other managers. William Agee should have also put an effort to avoid such scrutiny by showing some professional distance between him and Mary Cunningham. That way, both would have less trouble with regards to the position placing issues and resistance from the board

Learning Theory Paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Learning Theory Paper - Assignment Example He focused on how some adults were self-directed in their learning and others were not. He found that 70% of adult learners were self-directed and they did not rely on academic learning as the way that they learned (Tough, 2002). Tough was interesting in examining why there were differences and he wanted to add information about why adult learners felt compelled to improve themselves with or without formal learning (Tough, 2002). The information that Tough presented provided more information on how to assist the adult learner beyond what had been provided in the past. Tough realized that adults were learning in many different ways and they were often discovering learning in nontraditional ways. Adults were learning all the time and it was a part of their everyday life. He found that most adults did not value this outside learning, because they associated learning with formal education (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007). In a survey that was done by Patrick Penland, a library school professor, it was found that adult learners were primarily interested in professional development, information that would enhance their family, and those things that would help them move forward in their jobs (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007; Tough, 2002). Tough categorized learning into several episodes and asked adult learners to report on projects that were about seven hours (Tough, 1971). He found that adults usually talked about their day in episodes, or spans of time that described a certain event. He also saw that adults were spending about15 hours a week learning, but that this time may be spent on learning many different things at once (Tough, 2002). Tough found that some adult learners (about 10%) were not interested in learning and that they were content with not learning. When the 10% of adults were questioned, Tough found that they had done many things in their lifetime to learn different things, and in their current

Interculture communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Interculture communication - Essay Example Technology changes the way we reason in identity and perceive other cultures. Technology mostly leads to movement of people making us to come in contact with many other people of different cultures. It has been established that young adults move more often than the other generations in the process changing the individuals not excluding myself as I moved from China to the U.S and adopted a little bit of the American cultures (Lee, 2011). Demographic intercultural communications are derived from the recent variation in the U.S population. The changing US demographics include the population increasingly becoming non-white and multiracial besides the workforce being female dominated and older. The changing immigration patterns result in immigration and economic classes. According to Lee (2011) demographic diversity results in varied world views which lead to prejudices and stereotypes though it can be a positive force in giving linguistic richness and research. The economic imperative based on globalization as the US economy is connected to other countries it does little in ding business with other countries. Domestic diversity also encourages business to be attentive in to cultural variations. The peace imperative gives an insight on the role of historical, political, religions and economic contexts. Most of the time contacts to other groups have led to conflicts. The interpersonal imperative helps us to comprehend our cultural diversity with the similarities and differences that exist in the universe. Communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which individuals make shared meanings. Symbols define the shared meanings. Interpretive as people comprehend symbolic behavior of others. Transactional because people task together create comprehension among themselves communication is a process comprising of shared meanings. Interpersonal communication involves

Racial discrimination Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Racial discrimination - Research Paper Example Racism involves more than cognizant ill-will, more than willful acts of exclusion, avoidance, violence and malice committed by individuals. Racism explains the actuality of unjust benefit, bestowed authority, and unseen concession which the white Americans enjoy, to the burden, detriment, and drawback of the individuals of color. We may infer that racial bias works my means of acts carried out of conscious alertness. Also racial discrimination is not naturally bestowed upon human beings, it is a created vice. Racism or racial discrimination is rather complicated and is not the mundane understanding. It is far worse than the actions of bigotry, bias, and exclusion. Racism is a way of accepting and inferring discrepancies in the color of the skin which makes the white Americans have the benefit of an advantaged social class which provides admission and gains to the disadvantage, detriment and trouble to individuals of color. In all permutations, racial discrimination is at the centre a resistance of social benefits based on racism (Synder, 2008). Globalization and racial discrimination The super powers of today, like, Australasia, European countries and North America and pockets of wealthy nations have quickly adjusted to the strategy to embrace apartheid in a bid to protect themselves from the risk of privileged lifestyles and territorial integrity. This hazard is posed by the imminent increase in international migration from underdeveloped to developed nations, especially nations witnessing the collapse of its governments to those having a strong and stable functional political environment. In fact, a bulk of 23 million displaced persons and immigrants worldwide hail from the poorer Third World nations. This is where racial discrimination with reference to inhospitable reactions from developed nations towards these migrants is the highlight of widespread racial discrimination conducted. Despite the fact that, official apartheid conducted in South Africa has now been banned, nations worldwide are in favor of making preventive policies and acts of control which are strikingly similar to those acts of apartheid conducted in the 1950s in South Africa. Moreover, these nations have plausible reasons for imposing such policies in the name of defending the existing social institutions and cultures, maintaining law and order, enhancing security in states, preserving economic benefits, safeguarding ethnic identity and a means of managing and regulating movements in population. The breakthroughs attained in technology especially in the field of communications have spurred interdependence and closer linkages in many parts. Occurrences taking place in a particular area may activate a series of incidences which may have effects in nations which are far away from the scene of crime. Also one can opine that globalization is responsible for certain challenges. The worldwide economy is subject to the interlinked economies of the Europe, United States, Japa n, and the quickly increasing ones of Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan. Pressures of migration have resulted from changes in the region of economic growth places and from dislocation caused by clash (Richmond, 1994). Racial discrimination in the workplace Racial/ethnic pestering and discrimination means unwanted, uncomfortable or unwelcome treatment on the basis of ethnicity or race and pressurizes the targeted individual’

Gender Representation - Boardwalk Empire Essay Example for Free

Gender Representation Boardwalk Empire Essay As a hybrid genre, the representations in Boardwalk Empire are complex, contradictory, unconventional, conventional and stereotypical, whilst challenge stereotypes. Set in the 1920’s during prohibition, Nucky is a corrupt Republican politician and gangster, who has risen to his position through bribery, corruption, and murder. The series begins as prohibition begins, with Nucky toasting the government who ban alcohol; â€Å"†¦to those beautiful ignorant bastards in Washington†. As a gangster, Nucky knows he can make millions by supplying illegal alcohol to the public and is portrayed as a businessman, making money for all the ‘respectable’ local dignitaries that sit around his table; the chief of police (his brother Ely), the mayor, the head of the port authority, local Politicians, etc. He sees an opportunity through the prohibition to increase his fortune. There is a lot of juxtapositioning in the first episode to show us the various sides of Nucky, as a violent alcohol heist is followed by Nucky addressing a Ladies’ Temperance Society. Nucky weaves a myth of his own childhood of poverty, catching rats for his family to eat, to the gasps of the audience. Embodying the American Dream, Nucky has ‘risen’ from very humble beginnings to be top man in the state, he is merely seeking the ‘women’s vote’ for his Political re-election and often shows their ignorance of world politics proves them an easy mark for manipulation to gain full power over the Atlantic City. Nucky is a complex protagonist and anti-hero who is both despicable and admirable. He is obviously very clever, charming, funny, calculating, ruthless, and a skilful businessman and gangster. He juggles a legal political life with his illegal prohibition life, dealing with a constant flurry of unexpected problems as they arise. He manipulates people in ways that should make audiences hate him but Steve Buscemi (and the writers) manages to portray him as a complex character that seeks more than just money. The low camera angles throughout help suggesting Nucky is a very powerful figure in the drama. The power wield of woman in Boardwalk Empire is largely associated with sex, and furthermore this power of woman is represented through the male characters using it against eachother. For example Gillian Darmody, mother of gangster: Jimmy Darmody and a topless dancer in the city, plays a pivotal role when she sleeps with a rival gangster: Luciano in order to detain him until he can be collected and dealt with. Her sexual power is turned to the gangsters own advantage. Lucy Daziger is another key representation of sexual power and woman in Boardwalk Empire. She is the beautiful mol and mistress of Nucky who is often a negative representation of woman – dismissed constantly in favour of Nucky’s political and illegal life. She is objectified by him and others and is kept at his beck and call. During an evening at dinner with others, Lucy insists she has a brain but is quietened by Nucky, and we see Lucy has no place for opinion at the dinner with the Commodore in terms of politics. When Nucky rejects Lucy, he favours Margaret, because she is intelligent and sees her more as an equal for example at the same dinner Margaret expresses deep knowledge and understanding of politics. Lucy is extremely jealous of Margaret as Nucky clearly shows more affection for her, which is unconventional as Lucy is the beautiful mistress, often seeming powerful, Margaret is the opposite.. Margaret is the other key representation in the drama as she challenges the notion of ‘the little woman’ throughout the series. An Irish immigrant, clever, brave, and moral (but racked by guilt), her motives are often those of a protective Mother. Initially established as naive and unsophisticated, particularly by her dowdy dress codes i. colour codes are very dull: browns, greens, her deferential body-language, and her thick Irish accent, she is represented as a weak, ordinary and poor woman. For example her dress codes of poor clothing often lacking in quality, and colour. Margaret grows in confidence throughout the seasons, as her and Nucky begin a relationship. An Irish immigrant she is wise beyond her years, Margaret quickly becomes versed in the dealings of her â€Å"husba nd† and becomes a supportive and protective ‘wife’ for his chaotic life. In her previous marriage Margaret was represented in a weak and negative way enduring endless beatings from her husband Hans. An incident of abuse had caused Margaret to miscarry her 4th child, and so Nucky ordered to have Hans murdered. Margaret knows of this but chooses to remain silent for the benefit of herself and her kids, later racked with Catholic guilt over the murder, their life, and their source of income. Nucky proceeds to live with her and her children, becoming a sensitive father figure to the kids, and a loving ‘husband’ to her.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED)

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) Crime Prevention through Environmental Design is a method of deterring unlawful conduct through deliberately engineering the setting in which crime is likely to be perpetrated. In this regard, Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design is a multidisciplinary approach to prevent criminal behavior through environmental design (Atlas, 2008). CPTED tactics and strategies depend on the ability to manipulate the criminals choices that precede the crime. Importantly, to achieve deterrence effects of criminal behavior, CPTED strategies have been designed on the basis that they can influence offenders decision in regard to committing crime which precedes criminal acts. The essence of CPTED approach is underlined by Angel (1968) suggestion that crime settings can be influenced by: the creation or elimination of boundaries, decreasing or increasing accessibility, delineating territories and through enhancing surveillance by the police and citizenry. Therefore, CPTED can be seen as an approac h to problem solving that takes into account the environmental conditions and the opportunities they offer for criminal behavior occurrence (Cornish and Clarke 1986). Thereafter, it utilizes those perceived opportunities responsible for causing crimes to control access, provide opportunity to see and to be seen and defines ownership while encouraging territory maintenance (Luedtke et al, 1970) CPTED uses a multiplicity of disciplines to foresee the offenders mindset and hence create an environment that deters criminal behavior. Crowe (2000) reports that the central tenet used to arrive at the strategies is the analysis of crime and the environment where it occur using an analytic question â€Å"why here†. Furthermore, such analyses have proved that: crimes are specific and situational; crime distribution correlates to land use and transport network; and offenders are usually optimistic and commits crime in place they know well (Atlas, 2008). Moreover, these analyses reveal that opportunities for crime arise out of daily activities and crime places that are often without observer. The strategies that are employed to achieve CPTED objectives are through the use of target hardening, natural surveillance, alarm and warning systems installation and access control. Despite the science being originally formulated by Ray Jeffery (1977), CPTED is studied within the works and findings of Oscar Newman and Tim Crowe. R Jefferys model is now viewed as a multidisciplinary approach to crime prevention which strays from the parameters of security science by incorporating psychology, human anatomy, biology and ergonomics (Crowe, 2000). Newman (1972) ascertained the two basic components of a defensible space. First, this space must enable people to see other people and to be seen themselves. This greatly reduces the inhabitants fears because they are confident that a criminal can be viewed, recognized and detained. Second, residents should be willing to get involved in fighting crime, this involves nurturing a sense of control among the inhabitants; this will enable them to adopt an empowered attitude which facilitates the combat of crime especially within residential areas. Following its inception, CPTED has advanced at a great pace. Some of the noteworthy advancements include: the broken windows theory by James Wilson and Kelling George which studies the impact that visible neglect, wear and tear in neighborhoods have on behavior, the environmental criminology paper by Patricia and Paul Brantingham which looks at crime through four elements: rule, a wrongdoer, a target and an opportune location with environmental criminology being the study of the last of the four elements (Goldstein, 1990; Cornish and Clarke, 1986). British academicians Ronald and Patricia Mayhew also advance the discipline by formulating their Situational Crime Prevention Approach which addresses the reduction of the chance to offend by enhancing the design and administration of the environment in question. Theory supporting CPTED in residential burglaries There are number of criminology theories that justify and align to CPTED approach in relation to residential burglaries. Theories that support CPTED in residential burglaries tend to deviate long due reliance on the sociological and biological perspective to understand crime, and instead emphasis on the crime prevention incentives that reduce environmental opportunities for crime and criminal. The most appropriate theory is the defensive space theory. The Defensive Space Theory This is a terminology used to describe an environment whose physical attributes building plan, location and function allows the occupants themselves to become key agents in safeguarding them. In other words defensive space is both a social and physical (sociophysical) phenomenon (Oscar Newman, 1972), which means that a housing unit is only secure if its inhabitants intend to take on the role of safeguarding it. The theory emphasizes that a location is safer when its individuals possess a sense of responsibility for it; Newman puts it as â€Å"the criminal is isolated because his turf is removed†. This means that if each space is owned and catered for by a conscientious caretaker then a burglar will feel more vulnerable perpetrating his crime. (Newman, 1972) In the defensive space theory there are four factors that constitute a defensible space: the concept of territoriality which is a sense of possession and control for a particular property, natural surveillance, which is the connection between a locations physical attributes and the inhabitants ability to monitor what is happening, the physical spaces Image or ability to convey a sense of security and Milieu which are other characteristics that may have an effect on security like nearness to a busy road. According to the theory, housing projects that stir up territorial sentiments are usually effective in combating crime and defacement. Newman (1972) put it that through good design people should not only feel comfortable in questioning what is happening in their surroundings, they should feel compelled to do so. Any criminal should be able to perceive a watchful community monitoring his actions. In the book Design Outlines for Creating Defensible spaces Oscar Newman outlined five basic principles of designing a defensible space. These basic principles are: the allocation to different groups the specific environment they are able to use and control, for instance the basketball court is best assigned to male teenagers. Second principle entails demarcation of space in housing developments to exhibit the zone under the control of specific inhabitants. Third, invokes the strategic juxtaposition. Fourth, incorporation of the streets within the direct influence of an inhabited setting and the embracing of building styles which eludes the stigma of irregularity that normally allows others to make out the susceptibility. And fifth, involves seclusion of a specific group of residents (Newman, 1972) Approaches in Initiating CPTED projects Research conducted in CPTED has revealed that the decision to indulge in criminal behavior or not to is more likely to be influenced by the criminals perception of the risks of being caught than his evaluations on the reward or the effort necessary in conducting the crime. In line with the findings of this research, defensible space is then designed to reduce crime and the fear of crime while improving the quality of life. In Crime Prevention through Environmental Design the four most widespread CPTED approaches are: natural surveillance or close watch, natural territorial reinforcement or fortification, natural access control or admission management and target hardening (Wood, 1961). Natural surveillance (Kruger and Liebermann, 2001) in CPTED is achieved by increasing awareness by placement of facilities, activities and individuals in a way visibility is optimized and human interaction is fostered. Criminals in such a space feel scrutinized and self aware, this diminishes the chance of them engaging in unlawful acts in such a space. This strategy takes effect by cutting down the opportunities for engaging in unlawful behavior. In such a design streets are made intentionally wide so as to accommodate as many pedestrians as possible. In natural surveillance designs: Unnecessary walls are usually eliminated this is because they block the residents line of vision, windows are positioned overlooking opportunistic points of entry and by closed circuit television (CCTV) is used to monitor suspicious individuals. In access control, only authorized individuals are allowed access to areas which might be targeted by criminals. This can be achieved through: keeping private areas behind lock and key, strategically situating security personnel to scrutinize individuals before they are given access to private space, use of tall fences to restrict access, doing away with design elements that might provide access to private areas, for instance poorly situated balconies and by barricading ground level windows which can be easily broken into by criminals (Cohen and Felson, 1979). In natural territorial reinforcements, personal space is distinctly demarcated and unauthorized movement is eliminated by demonstrating greater proprietary concern. This can be achieved by assigning areas to specific users, this makes trespassers prominent and hence easy to make out. The natural territorial reinforcement strategy of crime prevention can be attained through the implementation of: Prominently displaying alert and security signage, scheduling activities in common spaces, restricting unplanned activities and by preserving a well groomed a premise that conveys an active presence (Atlas, 2008). Target Hardening as a Strategy in Crime Deterrence Target hardening is a security term that refers to the fortification of a building in order to minimize the threat of attack or theft (Clarke, 1992). A straight forward method of crime prevention, target hardening usually deters or delays an attack. It includes ensuring that all windows, doors and other possible entrances are properly locked, removing any natural vegetation that could harbor criminals or be used by criminals to access higher properties. Practical Examples on the Successful Application of CPTED In the book Design Outlines for Creating Defensible Spaces written by Oscar Newman in 1972, he outlines a research conducted in the City of New York that revealed that high-rise apartment buildings had crime rates higher than in lower housing projects. He attributed this to the fact that in high rise buildings residents felt that they had no obligation to secure an area that is occupied by so many people. In 1985 George L. Kelling the originator of the broken window theory was hired as a consultant for New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) (Clarke, 1992). In this period David Gunn a researcher put in place robust measures to test the Broken Windows Theory specifically targeting vandalism and graffiti. From 1984 to 1990 the subway system was meticulously cleaned and service in line with the broken window theory (Crowe, 2000). In 1990 due to the runaway successes of George Kellings policies concerning graffiti and vandalism control, the implementation of the Broken Windows Theory was further intensified by his successor William J. Braton who became the chief officer of the New York City Police. Braton implemented zero-tolerance policies relating to fare dodging, easier arrestee processing methods and background checks on all offenders (Crowe, 2000). Celebrated Mayor Rudy Giuliani and his police commissioner Howard Safir also implemented the strategy on a wider scale in New York City. In his period at the helm Rudy Giuliani had the police strictly enforce the laws against subway fare evasion, public drinking, public urinators and men who wiped the windshields of stopped cars and demanded payment. This led to the crime rates of both serous and petty crime falling drastically for the next ten years (Clarke, 1992; Crowe, 2000). In the late 1990s in Albuquerque New Mexico an initiative called the Safe Streets program was launched (Clarke, 1992). In this scheme it was reasoned that lawlessness on roadways had a similar domino effect in facilitating crime as graffiti vandalism in New York. Punitive measures were initiated to discourage the antisocial behaviors experienced there; this was followed by a steep decline in crime as reviewed by NHTSA and published in a case study. An example that captures the definition o f a defensible space is a United States Department of Justice experiment in Hartford Connecticut (Clarke, 1992). In this experiment streets were closed and police were assigned to each neighborhood in the city. These measures were implemented alongside new public housing plans that were designed to restrict access to the city. Surprisingly Hartford did not show any significant drop in crime. This is despite the private areas of St Louis having a much lower crime rate than the public areas; the underlying reason is speculated to have been in private areas in St Louis people had the capacity and the incentives to protect their defensible spaces (Luedtke et al., 1970; Clarke, 1992). Checklists for Investigating a Premises Compliance with CPTED Template Questions to Evaluate a Premises Compliance with Natural Surveillance This checklist aims at evaluating how well natural surveillance strategies have been implemented within the building: Has the premises installed CCTV cameras to monitor human activities? Where is the lighting situated along passage ways? What is the height at which the lighting is placed? Can peoples faces be adequately made out with the current level of lighting? What is the level of glare from windows, smooth furniture surfaces or oil painted walls? Is it sufficient to cause a blind spot in peoples vision? Have the windows been shielded from glare by shielded or cut-off luminaires? What is the type of vestibules used in the construction of the buildings entry? Is it transparent or is it opaque in nature? Does it allow sufficient light to ensure good visibility? Is there a fence in the compound? What is the type of fence used (can it allow light through i.e. a chain link fence) or is it impervious to light? What is the proximity of the location to road? How busy is the traffic along that road? How to the residents of the premises leave their window shades? Open or closed? How are the windows positioned on the premises? Do they overlook areas that are a high risk of having a security breach? How is the landscape design in regards to facilitating surveillance over opportunistic points of entry? Template Questions to Evaluate a Premises Compliance with Natural Access Control Has fencing been used to restrict access to the premises? Is the fence high enough to prevent trespassers from jumping over it? Is there a gate separating the front yard from the back yard? Can it be locked? Is it usually locked? Were there any design features in the original plan of the premises that could provide unauthorized access to upper levels of the building? Are they still there? If they are still there, what steps have been taken avoid them being used to breach into the building? What steps have been used to secure ground level windows against breach? How many points of entry does the building have? Is it clearly identifiable? Template Questions to Evaluate a Premises Compliance with Natural Territorial Reinforcement Are the activities within the premises spontaneous or are they planned? Are private activities restricted to defined areas? Where are the amenities i.e. seating and food situated in the building? Are they distributed over a wide area or are they placed in a central location? Are there any security signage displayed in the building? How prominent do the security signages appear? How well has the premises and the landscape around it been maintained? Does it communicate an active presence? References Angel, S. (1968). City Planning and Discouraging Crime: University of California press, Berkeley Atlas, R. (2008). 21st Century Security and CPTED: Boston, CRC Press. Crowe, T. (2000), Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design: Boston, Heinemann. Cornish, D. Clarke, R.V. (1986): The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. New York: Springer Verlag. Clarke, R.V. (1992). Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies: New York, Harrow and Hesston. Cohen, L. Felson, M. (1979), â€Å"Crime Rate Trends and Social Change: A Routine Activity Approach.† American Sociological Review 44(4):589-600. Goldstein, H. (1990). Problem-Oriented Policing: New York: McGraw Hill. Jeffery, C. R. (1977). CPTED: Beverly Hills, Sage Publications. Kruger, T K L. Liebermann, S. (2001). Designing Safer Places: A Manual for Crime Prevention Through Planning and Design: Pretoria, South Africa: CSIR. Luedtke, G et al. (1970). The Physical City and Crime: Design Techniques for Crime Reduction for Neighborhood. Washington D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice. Newman, O. (1972). Crime Prevention Through Urban Design: Defensible Space. New York: Macmillan Wood, E. (1961) Housing Design: A Social Theory